THE RISE AND DEVELOPMENT OF NATIONALISM IN AFRICA AND NIGERIA

Introduction

The rise of nationalism in Africa cannot be separated from the long history of colonial domination and resistance. As early as the period of European penetration into the continent, African rulers and traditional leaders displayed acts of resistance to protect their territories, sovereignty, and economic interests. Figures such as King Jaja of Opobo, who resisted British economic domination in the Niger Delta; Chief Nana of Itsekiri, who opposed European interference in local trade; Sultan Attahiru of Sokoto, who fought against British conquest; Samori Touré of the Mandinka Empire, who led a prolonged military resistance against the French in West Africa; and Sekou Ahmad, all stood as symbols of early resistance. Although these leaders were primarily motivated by the desire to defend their kingdoms and preserve their autonomy, their resistance laid the foundation for modern African nationalism. Unfortunately, history has often referred to them as proto-nationalists or traditional nationalists, implying that they were not fighting for the nation in the modern sense but for their personal and regional interests. However, their actions undoubtedly inspired future generations to challenge European imperialism.

Meaning and Nature of Nationalism

Nationalism is a multifaceted concept that has evolved over time and assumes different meanings in different contexts. In the broadest sense, nationalism refers to a strong sense of collective identity and consciousness among people who share a common history, culture, language, and territory, and who desire to govern themselves free from external domination. For colonized peoples, such as those in Africa, nationalism meant the quest for political independence, self-rule, and economic freedom from colonial powers.

According to Professor Hans Kohn (1955), “nationalism is a state of mind in which the supreme loyalty of the individual is felt to be due to the nation.” In essence, it is the psychological and emotional attachment people have to their nation, making them prioritize national interests above all else. Similarly, Bugh (1970) defined nationalism as “a strong love for one’s fatherland,” emphasizing the emotional and patriotic aspect of the concept.

In the African context, nationalism was both a political movement and a social awakening. It was a deliberate response to the exploitative, oppressive, and dehumanizing policies of colonial administrations. Africans came to realize that colonialism was not intended to develop the continent but to extract resources, suppress the people, and destroy indigenous political and economic systems. Consequently, nationalist movements arose to oppose these injustices and to assert the right of Africans to determine their own destiny.

Forms or Types of Nationalism

Nationalism manifested in two broad forms: passive nationalism and active nationalism.

Passive nationalism was characterized by mild, constitutional, and non-violent methods of seeking reforms within the colonial framework. Nationalists in this category did not initially demand total independence but sought inclusion in governance, representation in legislative councils, and better treatment under colonial rule. This form of nationalism was predominant before the Second World War, when many African leaders believed that gradual reforms could lead to eventual equality and self-government.

Active nationalism, on the other hand, represented a more radical and assertive form of political struggle. It involved strong agitation for complete independence and self-determination, often using mass mobilization, strikes, and in some cases, armed struggle. Active nationalists rejected the legitimacy of colonial rule and demanded its total dismantling. In some countries like Nigeria and Ghana, the struggle took a peaceful form through political negotiation, while in others like Kenya and Algeria, it took violent dimensions due to the brutality of colonial repression. Generally, British colonies such as Nigeria, Ghana, and Sierra Leone attained independence through relatively peaceful constitutional means, while French colonies such as Algeria and Guinea experienced revolutionary and militant struggles.

Factors Responsible for the Rise of African and Nigerian Nationalism

The development of nationalism in Nigeria and across Africa was influenced by both external and internal factors. These factors worked together to awaken political consciousness and stimulate anti-colonial movements.

External Factors

1. The Independence of India and Pakistan (1947): The independence of India and Pakistan served as a major inspiration to African nationalist leaders. It demonstrated that the British Empire was not invincible and that colonial subjects could successfully challenge imperial rule through organized struggle. Nigerian and other African nationalists drew encouragement from India’s achievement, realizing that political independence was indeed attainable through unity and determination.

2. The Atlantic Charter (1941): During the Second World War, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill signed the Atlantic Charter, which emphasized the right of all nations to self-determination. Although the Charter was primarily meant to justify Allied war aims against the Axis powers, African leaders interpreted it as a moral endorsement of their demand for independence. This provided ideological justification for anti-colonial agitation throughout the continent.

3. The British Defeat by Japan in Asia (1942): Japan’s defeat of British forces in Asia, particularly the fall of Singapore, shattered the myth of European racial superiority. Africans began to see that the colonial masters were not unbeatable. This realization emboldened African soldiers and intellectuals to intensify their struggle for freedom.

4. The Activities of the British Labour Party: The Labour Party, which came to power in Britain after the Second World War, was more sympathetic to colonial demands for self-rule than the Conservative Party. The Labour government supported gradual decolonization and introduced policies that paved the way for constitutional reforms in Nigeria and other British colonies.

5. The Role of the United Nations (UN): Established in 1945, the United Nations provided a global platform for anti-colonial advocacy. The UN Charter promoted the principle of self-determination and human rights. Many African nationalists used this forum to campaign against colonialism and to gain international support for their movements.

6. The World Economic Depression (1929–1933): The Great Depression had devastating effects on both European and African economies. In response, colonial authorities increased taxes and intensified exploitation of African resources to sustain their economies. This created widespread resentment among Africans, leading to strikes, protests, and political awakening that later transformed into nationalist agitation.

Internal Factors

1. Return of Ex-Servicemen: Thousands of African soldiers who fought alongside Europeans during the Second World War returned home with new experiences and exposure. They had fought under the slogans of freedom and democracy, yet returned to societies still under colonial bondage. Many were also left unemployed and disillusioned as colonial authorities failed to honor promises of post-war employment and compensation. Their frustration and awareness became a major force behind nationalist movements, as they joined protests and supported political organizations demanding independence.

2. The Role of the Press: The press played a central role in the spread of nationalist ideas. Newspapers such as The Lagos Weekly Record, The Comet, The West African Pilot, and The Daily Times became instruments of political education and mobilization. Editors like Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe, through the West African Pilot, used journalism to expose the injustices of colonial rule and to propagate nationalist ideals. The press unified public opinion and gave voice to the oppressed.

3. Formation of Political Parties: The emergence of political parties in Nigeria and other African countries provided organizational structure and direction for nationalist activities. In Nigeria, the Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP) founded by Herbert Macaulay in 1923 was the first modern political party. It was followed by the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC) led by Nnamdi Azikiwe, the Action Group (AG) led by Obafemi Awolowo, and the Northern People’s Congress (NPC) led by Ahmadu Bello. In Ghana, Kwame Nkrumah’s Convention People’s Party (CPP) led the fight for independence. These parties mobilized the masses, challenged colonial policies, and eventually negotiated independence.

4. Activities of Trade Unions: Trade unions provided a grassroots platform for mass mobilization. The Nigerian Railway Workers’ Union under Pa Michael Imoudu spearheaded several strikes that paralyzed colonial operations. Unions united workers across ethnic and regional lines, fostering national consciousness and strengthening the call for independence. In South Africa, the Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU) played similar roles against apartheid and colonialism.

5. The Elective Principle of 1922: The Clifford Constitution of 1922 introduced an elective principle that allowed Nigerians to elect representatives into the Legislative Council. Though limited to Lagos and Calabar, it marked the beginning of Nigerian political participation. This experience gave nationalist leaders practical exposure to politics and heightened their demand for self-rule.

6. The Activities of the West African Students’ Union (WASU): Formed in London in 1925 by African students, WASU became a hub for intellectual discussions and anti-colonial campaigns. Its members, including Nnamdi Azikiwe and Kwame Nkrumah, exchanged ideas with other global movements and returned home to lead nationalist struggles. WASU’s publications and lobbying efforts helped internationalize the African independence movement.

Nationalist Activities Before and After the Second World War

Nationalist movements in Nigeria and other parts of Africa can be divided into two main phases: the period before the Second World War (1920s–1930s) and the period after the Second World War (1945–1960s).

Before the Second World War, nationalist agitation was limited, elitist, and moderate. The movements were dominated by a small number of educated Africans who sought reform within the colonial framework rather than total independence. Leaders such as Herbert Macaulay focused on securing political representation, fair treatment, and respect for traditional institutions. The few organizations that existed, like the National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA) and WASU, were largely reformist in nature, advocating for gradual changes in colonial administration.

However, after the Second World War, the character of nationalism changed dramatically. The return of ex-servicemen, the emergence of new political parties, and the influence of global anti-colonial movements transformed African nationalism into a mass-based and radical movement. The demands shifted from reform to outright independence. Newspapers became more vocal, political rallies became widespread, and strikes became more frequent. The post-war nationalists - Nnamdi Azikiwe, Kwame Nkrumah, Obafemi Awolowo, and Julius Nyerere - were well-educated, articulate, and uncompromising in their demands for freedom.

In conclusion, the nationalist movement before the war was gradual and constitutional, while after the war, it became radical, organized, and mass-oriented, leading directly to independence across Africa.

Tutorials Questions

1. Compare the Nigeria nationalist response to colonial rule after the Second World War to that of 1920s and 1930s or discuss the main features or characteristics of the Nigerian nationalist response to colonial rule before the Second World War. (IJMB Q.S).

2. What are the factors that galvanized the nationalist activities in Nigeria (University Q.S).

3. Discuss the factors which led to the rise of Nigerian nationalism before 1945 (IJMB Q.S).

4. Discuss the major effects of the Second World War on Nigerian nationalism (IJMB Q.S).

5. What is nationalism? Discuss the factors that led to it rise during the colonial erm in Nigeria (IJMB Q.S)

References

Ajayi, J.F.A. & Crowder, M. (Eds.) (1985). History of West Africa. Longman.

Coleman, J.S. (1958). Nigeria: Background to Nationalism. University of California Press.

Crowder, M. (1968). West Africa Under Colonial Rule. Hutchinson.

Falola, T. (2009). Colonialism and Violence in Nigeria. Indiana University Press.

Kohn, H. (1955). Nationalism: Its Meaning and History. Van Nostrand.

Sklar, R.L. (1963). Nigerian Political Parties: Power in an Emergent African Nation. Princeton University Press.

Bugh, D. (1970). The Dynamics of Nationalism. Macmillan.