THE MARXIAN THEORY OF POLITICAL ECONOMY AND SOCIAL CLASS ANALYSIS

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According to Marxian political economy, the structure of material production forms the foundation upon which political, legal and social life is built. This idea is captured in the famous assertion that “the mode of production of material life determines the character of the political process of life.” In other words, the way a society produces its material needs — food, goods, wealth and resources, largely shapes its political institutions, power relations and patterns of governance. This argument is not unconnecetd with the book  titled The Communist Manifesto, jointly authored by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in 1932.

Marx argued that the driving force of history is not ideas, morals, or religion, but material conditions. He believed that, human history is fundamentally a history of class struggles. That is, persistent conflicts between opposing social groups defined by their relationship to economic production. These struggles manifest most clearly between the bourgeoisie (the owners of wealth and capital) and the proletariat (those who possess only their labor power). This enduring conflict reflects a broader struggle between oppressors and the oppressed, a pattern Marx believed could be observed across different historical epochs.

Central to this analysis is the concept of the mode of production. The mode of production encompasses more than mere techniques or tools used in producing goods. It includes three interconnected elements:

  1. the forces of production, such as labor, technology, and raw materials;

  2. the relations of production, which describe the social relationships people enter into during the production process; and

  3. the ownership and control of the means of production, including land, factories, machines and capital.

extrapolating from the above, these elements define how wealth is created and distributed within a society. Marx argued that once a particular mode of production becomes dominant, it shapes social relations and generates distinct classes with opposing interests.

Social class, therefore, cannot be understood superficially or reduced to mere income differences. In Marxian analysis, a social class refers to a group of people distinguished by their position and relationship to the means of production. It is this relationship (not status, education, or prestige) that determines class identity. From this perspective, capitalist society gives rise primarily to two major classes.

First is the economic class, often referred to as the bourgeoisie or the “haves.” This class owns and controls the means of production and appropriates surplus value generated by labor. Because of their economic dominance, they possess the power to shape not only economic outcomes but also political institutions, laws and state policies. Their economic strength enables them to translate material dominance into political authority.

Second is the productive class, commonly known as the proletariat or the “have-nots.” This class does not own the means of production and must sell its labor power in order to survive. While they are directly involved in production, they do not control the products of their labor. As a result, they are economically exploited and politically marginalized.

Deduced from this economic structure is a corresponding political arrangement. The bourgeoisie, as the economically dominant class, reproduces its dominance within the political sphere by controlling state power, public policy and ideological institutions. Conversely, the proletariat’s economic subordination is mirrored in political domination, as they are often excluded from meaningful political decision-making. Thus, economic power and political power are deeply intertwined.

For Marxian political economists, class struggle is therefore not limited to the economic arena alone. It extends into politics, ideology and governance. Class relations are interpreted as power relations; class struggle becomes political struggle; class consciousness evolves into political consciousness; and class conflict transforms into political conflict. The state itself is viewed not as a neutral body but as an instrument through which the dominant class protects its economic interests.

In conclusion, Marxian political economy presents a holistic framework in which economic structures underpin political life. Politics, law and ideology are seen as reflections of material conditions rather than independent forces. Class struggle, arising from unequal control over the means of production, becomes the engine of historical change and the key to understanding political power, social conflict, and the dynamics of domination and resistance within society.

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